American Historical Review said:
Book Review
Asia
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Kei Ushimura. Beyond the "Judgment of Civilization": The Intellectual Legacy of the Japanese War Crimes Trials, 1946–1949. (LTCB International Library, number 14.) Translated by Steven J. Ericson. Tokyo: International House of Japan. 2003. Pp. xvii, 336.
This is a subtle book about a subject generally presented in the broadest of strokes, which may explain why the original Japanese edition won a major prize. Kei Ushimura begins by rejecting the stance that "civilization" was the plaintiff in the Tokyo War Crimes Trial and traces the history of that assertion. Not only did the lead prosecutor open the trial with that claim but Maruyama Masao, a prominent postwar Japanese intellectual, also concurred in a famous essay that decried the "dwarfishness" of wartime leaders for their failure to accept responsibility for their crimes. Through a close reading of the trial transcripts and other documents, Ushimura shows that Maruyama systematically ignored statements in which the defendants did acknowledge responsibility. Moreover, contrary to Maruyama's assertions, the Japanese leaders acted much as did their counterparts on trial at Nuremberg. Ushimura's message is that both the prosecutors and Japanese leftists did Japan a disservice by portraying the trial in such a black-and-white way, making it easier for other Japanese then and since to reject the exercise as hypocritical victor's justice. 1
Deftly showing how Japanese and Allies influenced each other and shaped later perceptions of the Tokyo trial, Ushimura matches several pairs of Japanese and Westerners, including novelist Takeyama Michio (most famous for The Harp of Burma) and Dutch justice Bernard Röling, who became friends during the course of the trial. Both produced nuanced analyses of war responsibility. In a remarkable essay written in 1946 but not published until 1951, Takeyama cast "modern civilization" as the defendant rather than the prosecutor. Invoking the tale of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, he argued that Japan's "evil" deeds derived from its use of modern organizational and propaganda technologies, not from its feudal benightedness, as intellectuals such as Maruyama had claimed. By implication, the Allied nations sitting in judgment also contained their own evil twin, modern Mr. Hyde. And, more subtly, Japanese critics also bore some responsibility for wartime policies. Judge Röling issued a dissenting statement, finding five of the twenty-eight defendants not guilty but also recommending the death sentence for three others who had been given life in prison by the majority of the justices. His carefully reasoned judgment, Ushimura suggests, was informed by his conversations with Takeyama, respect for Japanese people, and modest recognition that neither he nor the other judges embodied civilization itself. 2
The Tokyo trial introduced many Japanese civilians to the facts of Japanese wartime actions such as the Nanjing Massacre and established postwar remembrance of the war in Japan on many points. The trial thus operated as a site of remembrance for both Japanese and Westerners, and Ushimura's book, at one level, is a meditation on historical remembrance. Informed by Edward Said's Orientalism (1978) as well as Japanese struggles over how to remember the years of war and occupation, Ushimura criticizes both those who ignore Japanese war crimes and those who treat them as uniquely Japanese. Participants and observers alike frequently used the Tokyo trial as an opportunity to define civilization and barbarity. Often civilization was framed as Western or even global, as against Japanese barbarity, but the concept was more flexible than one might suppose. One of the defendants, former foreign minister Togo Shigenori, wrote a memoir in prison that stressed the views of his predecessor, Mutsu Munemitsu, who had argued that the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895 represented the triumph of Western civilization, embodied by Japan, against the "old civilization" of East Asia, represented by China. Togo thus invoked both the context of global imperialisms and Japanese efforts to join the ranks of the Great Powers. He framed the Pacific theater of World War II as a "challenge-and-response" narrative, in which Americans and Japanese reacted to each other in a tragic escalation of hostilities. American insistence before Pearl Harbor that Japan alone withdraw from the Asian continent made it impossible, he averred, for any Japanese government to comply, setting in motion a series of events that could only end in war. 3
This is an interesting book, well translated with a strong authorial voice; at the most fundamental level, Ushimura wishes to remind his readers of the essential humanity of everyone involved. He may be too kind to a few of his subjects, but his reminder that the consequences of dehumanizing others are rarely positive is both timely and important. 4
Laura Hein
Northwestern University