Did Nanking really happen?

1. Nationalist sentiment and historical revisionism:
   Some Japanese nationalists view accounts of the massacre as exaggerated or fabricated by the Allies, especially by China and the United States, during the postwar Tokyo Trials. They argue that such narratives were used to vilify Japan and undermine national pride. For these revisionists, questioning or downplaying the massacre is a way to resist what they see as a "masochistic" view of history.
2. Textbook and education controversies:
   Postwar Japanese education has often avoided detailed engagement with atrocities like the Nanjing Massacre. While some textbooks include it, others gloss over or omit it entirely. This has led to generations of students growing up with little or no exposure to the event, creating space for scepticism or outright denial.
3. Lack of definitive figures and evidence debates:
   The death toll of the massacre is heavily debated. While most historians outside Japan estimate that 200,000 to over 300,000 civilians and prisoners of war were killed, deniers question the numbers, often citing the difficulty of verification or suggesting that many were combatants. This doubt is used to cast broader scepticism on the entire event.
4. Cold War politics and the rise of anti-communist narratives:
   During the Cold War, Japan became a key US ally, and anti-communist narratives gained strength. Some conservatives framed Chinese accounts of the massacre as communist propaganda, especially after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. This helped sow suspicion about the authenticity of Chinese war crime claims.
5. Legal outcomes and the Tokyo Trials legacy:
   Critics of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo Trials) often argue that the trials were "victor's justice" and lacked procedural fairness. Since the Nanjing Massacre was a central charge at those trials, denying the massacre is sometimes bundled with broader scepticism toward the tribunal's legitimacy.
6. Media and political figures:
   Statements by influential politicians such as former Tokyo governor Ishihara Shintarō (石原慎太郎, 1932–2022) or former Prime Minister Abe Shinzō (安倍晋三, 1954–2022)—both of whom downplayed or questioned Japan's wartime responsibility—have lent public credibility to denialist views and emboldened revisionist historians and media.

1. Eyewitness Accounts by Foreigners in Nanjing

• John Rabe (1882–1950) – A German businessman and Nazi Party member who led the Nanking Safety Zone Committee. His diary provides day-by-day observations of Japanese atrocities and is a key primary source. Published as The Good Man of Nanking.
• Minnie Vautrin (1886–1941) – An American missionary who sheltered thousands of women at Jinling Women's College. Her diaries record repeated rapes and killings by Japanese soldiers.
• George Fitch – An American missionary who filmed and reported on the massacre; his 8mm footage is considered crucial evidence.
• Robert Wilson – An American surgeon at the University of Nanking Hospital. His letters detail the daily influx of rape and mutilation victims.
• James McCallum – Another American missionary whose journals describe widespread sexual violence and mass executions.

2. Japanese Military and Civilian Accounts

• Soldier confessions – During the Tokyo Trials and other postwar interrogations, many Japanese soldiers admitted to mass executions, rapes, and looting. Notably, confessions were recorded in "The Nanking Atrocities: Crimes of War" (edited by Iris Chang) and "Japanese War Crimes: Records of the Allied Occupation and Prosecution of Japanese War Criminals" (National Archives).
• Jirō Murase (村瀬次郎) – A former soldier who later admitted witnessing atrocities and expressed deep remorse.
• Private diaries and letters – Many diaries and correspondence from Japanese soldiers were recovered or published, including records of execution contests, rapes, and looting.

3. Photographic and Film Evidence

• Photographs taken by Japanese soldiers themselves often inadvertently documented atrocities. Some were recovered from dead soldiers or confiscated postwar.
• Films shot by Westerners such as George Fitch and John Magee depict the destruction and human suffering during and after the massacre.
• Japanese wartime propaganda magazines also inadvertently recorded scenes of mass executions and gloating soldiers, some of which were later used as evidence.

4. War Crimes Trials

• Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948) – Japanese military leaders were tried for war crimes including the Nanjing Massacre. General Matsui Iwane (松井石根, 1878–1948) was convicted and executed. His own diary and statements were used in evidence.
• Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1947) – Conducted by Chinese Nationalist authorities, this tribunal tried and convicted various officers involved in the massacre.
• Eyewitness testimonies and forensic investigations during these trials presented detailed evidence, including burial records and mass grave excavations.

5. Chinese Documentation and Survivor Testimonies

• Official reports by the Kuomintang (Nationalist government) collected shortly after the massacre, many of which were used during the Tokyo Trials.
• Accounts collected by the Chinese Red Cross, local hospitals, and refugee organisations in and around Nanjing.
• Survivor testimonies compiled in Chinese oral history projects, including those led by academics such as Zhang Lianhong (张连红) at Nanjing Normal University.

6. Scholarly Research and Publications

• Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking (1997) – Widely cited, though also criticised for some errors, it reignited public debate.
• Joshua A. Fogel, The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography (2000) – Academic anthology exploring the event and its denial.
• Tokushi Kasahara (笠原十九司) – A Japanese historian who has written extensively on the massacre and argues against revisionist denials.
• Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–38: Complicating the Picture – Offers a nuanced multi-perspective scholarly analysis.